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Spectacle Buildings in Late Antiquity from Bulgaria

Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski" | DOI |
Archaeology Department | |
This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. | core article |
Abstract: Spectacles are one of the definitive elements of ancient culture. Most studies do not pay enough attention to the question of when exactly spectacle buildings function. Is it possible to discover the specific reasons for their disappearance, such as barbarian invasions, imperial regulations, or destruction by Christians?
Keywords: Late Antiquity, Spectacle Buildings, Bulgaria
The sources indicate a certain decline in spectacle buildings during Late Antiquity [1] – it is known that the end of executions was put in 325 by the order of Constantine the Great [2]. In Roma, Honorius abolished gladiatorial schools (399) and banned gladiatorial contests (404), But there is evidence that the last gladiatorial contest took place in Italy in 439-440.[3] The last hunting games were last held in Rome, in 523.[4] The last acrobatic performance involving animals was again performed in Roma, in 537.[5] Procopius of Caesarea (c. 500 - after 565) wrote about Andreas, a sports coach in Constantinopolis [6] (about 530), during his time the violent death of convicts in the arena (hippodrome?), was still considered a mass entertainment[7].
On the other hand, the archaeological picture is not so definitive[8]. Spectacle buildings, from the territory of Bulgaria, have so far been found in the cities of Marcianopolis, Diocletianopolis, Philippopolis, Serdica, Parthicopolis (Обр. 1, синьо). The specific situation, for each site in Late Antiquity, will be traced in the following lines [9].
In Marcianopolis an amphitheater has been discovered (Spectacle Buildings from the territory of Bulgaria converted into churches in Late Antiquity) (Fig. 1, blue № 1). It was built in the second half of the 2nd - early 3rd century and was used until the end of the 4th century. The following is known from the literature: an early Christian church was built on the arena; some of the rooms under the seats of the building were used for housing; an early medieval fortress was built on a part of the architecture, while the building may have been used for quarrying building material.
During the research of Diocletianopolis[10], an amphitheater was discovered (Fig. 1, blue № 2; Fig. 2 – 3). Its construction dates back to the late 3rd - early 4th century when the settlement rose to the rank of a town. The building functioned until the Gothic invasions of 376-378 when it is believed to have been destroyed There is no information on the subsequent fate of the building following the aforementioned date. A water piping was discovered passing through the enclosing wall of the arena and continuing underneath it before heading to the nearby bathhouse. It is not clarified whether this aqueduct was contemporary or built later than the amphitheater.
In Philippopolis a theatre was discovered (Spectacle Buildings from the territory of Bulgaria converted into churches in Late Antiquity) (Fig. 1, blue № 3; Fig. 4 – 5). Because the site has not been fully published, it is uncertain what the fate of the building was after the late 4th century, when it ceased to be used. A burial from Late Antiquity has been discovered, while the building itself was used for the extraction of building material. The presence of an early Christian basilica nearby is disputed.
In Philippopolis[11] a spectacle building was also discovered, i.e. a stadium (Fig. 1, blue № 4; Fig. 4; Fig. 6). The building bounds northward by the fortress wall of the town, where a necropolis was also found. The date of the construction is placed approximately in the period 117-130 AD. It used to function until the end of the 4th century and is considered that it ceased to function due to a fire. Another reason that the stadium may have been closed is the suspension of Olympic Games by Theodosius I[12]. In the 5th – 6th century a water pipeline and a reservoir were built, which further damaged the building. Houses were also built during the Middle Ages and there were also later destructions. The building was used for the extraction of construction materials. There is evidence of a second construction period, which is dated to the second half of the 3rd century. On the roads “Knyaz Alexander I“ and “Otets Paisii“ an arched wall was discovered built on the track, with a width of 1,00 m[13]. Both stones and spoils from the stadium were used for the construction. The wall is undated [14].
It should be noted that: there are no traces of the alleged fire; the building was mentioned by Anna Komnina in the 11th century after its alleged destruction; dwellings have been recorded in recent research; it was also used as a quarry[15].
Originally on the site of the amphitheater in Serdica[16] there was a theater[17], dating from the late 2nd – mid 3rd century. Between 294 and 320/322 an amphitheater was built, which functioned until the end of the 4th century.. (Fig. 1, blue № 5; Fig. 7 – 8). There is evidence of three dwellings that were located among the remains of the building after the building material was removed, dated to the late 4th - 5th century and the second half of the 5th - early 6th century. Structures from later eras were also found. Three graves from Late Antiquity were found. Based on the bone material found at the site, it is assumed that various wild animals were used during the spectacles. It is separately considered that there was a bone-working workshop functioning there in the 6th century. Due to the incomplete publication of the site, it is not clear what kind of materials were used and where they came from. In the case of the bones the question remains: how are those associated with the spectacles distinguished from those derived from the alleged workshop?
The theatre at Parthicopolis[18] was built in the last quarter of the 1st century. It functioned until the late 4th - early 5th century. (Fig. 1, blue № 6; Fig. 9 – 10). After its closure it was used as a quarry for building materials. Examples of this are the spolia in the early Christian basilica № 1 from the middle of the 4th century, as well as the discovered circus cover in the 6th-century baptistery (Fig. 11).[19] The imposition of Christianity and imperial regulations are given as reasons for its closure. Another possible cause of the building's collapse is an earthquake.
Attention also needs to be paid to two building types that are often misinterpreted/confused with each other – odeon and bouleuterion[20]. The reason for this is the similarity of their layout, and the need to include them lies in the fact that the odeons are part of the spectacle buildings. An additional problem is the lack of publications related to the publishing of the excavated material. The Odeon is a building where musical performances, singing and poetry competitions were held, while the bouleuterion is where the city government used to meet (Fig. 1, yellow) such buildings where the local governments used to meet are discovered in Nicopolis ad Istrum[21] (Fig. 1, yellow № 1; Fig. 14 – 15), Philippopolis[22] (Fig. 1, yellow № 2; Fig. 4; Fig. 16) and Serdica[23] (Fig. 1, yellow № 3; Fig. 7; Fig. 17) (bouleuterion). Regarding the one in Nicopolis ad Istrum[24] is not yet unanimously accepted what function it had [25]. The building that housed the local government in Oescus[26], which has not yet been revealed, was probably designed on an Italian model and was called curia. The general conclusion is that the squares, and particularly the bouleuterion, which were mistakenly interpreted as Odeons, functioned until the end of 4th or first half of 5th.[27] It is not impossible that the bouleuterions were also used as odeons, but there is a need for irrefutable evidence in this direction, otherwise, such claims are mere speculations. Similar buildings are not found in the newly constructed/declared cities in Late Antiquity because the form of government itself was changing. As a conclusion it can be pointed out that a special building, functioning independently as an odeon, from the territory of Bulgaria, has not been found so far.
As has already been pointed out, all ancient cities had buildings for spectacles. Those on the territory of Bulgaria are no exception, although the excavated ones are few. Circumstantial evidence of the presence of such buildings is also available in other cities:
- Theatrical buildings dating before Christ are known to have existed in Dionysopolis (Fig. 1, green № 1), Odessos (Fig. 1, green № 2), Messambria Pontica (Fig. 1, green № 3) and Apollonia Pontica[28] (Fig. 1, green № 4).
- Interesting information about spectacles can be obtained from texts, terracotta statuettes, funerary stelae, clay theatre masks, souvenirs, toys, coins, etc.[29]
- There is a claim in the literature that there was a theatre/amphitheater/hippodrome to the northeast of the eastern gate of Novae[30], where an old people’s home is now located (Fig. 1, red № 1). Drilling carried out in 2000 found that there were no traces of structures associated with the hippodrome (?), which is explained by the construction of the elderly home, while blocks from these structures were used in its construction. During the drilling research carried out in 2003 it was revealed the presence of normally deposited geological strata, as well as three partially destroyed ancient kilns for lamps, with no trace of a spectacle building.
- In the collection of the Regional History Museum of Silistra a double corner pilaster is preserved, which is presumed to have belonged to an amphitheater [31] (Fig. 1, red № 2). Amphitheaters are an integral part of military camps, as the one in Its construction is placed in the late 2nd – early 3rd century, without being clear when the building existed.
- Based on photographs and the results of interdisciplinary research, it is assumed that the location of the Deultum amphitheater is known[32] (Fig. 1, red № 3).
- The space in the southwest square of Augusta Traiana is thought to have been used as a spectacle building (Fig. 1, red № 4).
Regarding the examined examples in Bulgaria, the following conclusions can be drawn: there is a range of evidence for the holding of spectacles and for the existence of buildings for this purpose in antiquity in several cities, but specific architectural monuments have only been uncovered in five of them (Fig. 19). Despite the lack of completed monographs on the sites, the general conclusion is that they ceased to function after the middle of the 4th century and more specifically towards the end of the 4th century. At present, it is difficult to find a link between the disappearance of the territory of Bulgaria of these buildings and various barbarian raids, imperial regulations, Christian destruction, etc. It is not possible to find an answer to the question of whether the disappearance of these buildings is related to the suspended subsidies and to what extent. On the other hand, if the original function of the spectacle buildings was no longer maintained/funded, then when these buildings were used massively for the extraction of building material? Was it then or later[33]? Apart from this, have these buildings been further modified to serve as dwellings (or something else), while they were functioning at the same time as a query (or something else)? (Fig. 19)? It is important to reiterate that the only example of a church built in a spectacle building, namely that in the amphitheater of Marcianopolis, does not bear the characteristics of a Christian worship edifice, despite the hagiographic accounts of martyrs. This statement comes to confirm the conclusion that the historical picture does not always correspond to the archaeological. As the only example of a later spectacle building that retained its original function, is the stadium of Philippopolis with the arched wall found there. This would imply that different parts of the building were used differently at the same time, a possibility that can be also valid for the amphitheater of Marcianopolis. Many of these sites are found in modern cities and their complete study has not been possible. It is for this reason along with the inability to monitor the situation over the whole building, that such conclusions are likely to be omitted. Only future studies could confirm or refute such an interpretation.
[1] Динчев 2016, 310; Dintchev 2018, 357; Динчев 2021а, 273. “Late Roman era” is a term referring to the period 284-395 AD, “Early Byzantine“ is for the period from 395 to 610, both of the terms are combined under the general meaning of “Late Antiquity”.
[2] Янев 2000, 71; Вагалински 2009, 68.
[3] Вагалински 2009, 67.
[4] Ibid., 68.
[5] Ibid., 69.
[6] For the spectacle buildings in Constantinopolis see (Spectacle Buildings in Constantinopolis). There is no record of any gladiatorial contests taking place in the city. Thus, the disappearance of munus (gladiatorial combat) in the city has nothing to do with Christianity. The use of gladiators as bodyguards by Pope Damasus (367), or their use in the destruction of a pagan temple at Apamea during the reign of Arcadius, does not indicate the “decline” of gladiators, but its incorporation into the Christian world (Вагалински 2009, 68-69). It is possible that gladiatorial contests disappeared in the middle of the 4th century in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, while hunting games generally disappeared in the 4th century, but the situation has to be interpreted carefully and according to the corresponding site due to the lack of certain archaeological evidence and conflicting information from the sources. Such an interpretation is only possible after the complete publication of the sites, something which currently is lacking. Amphitheaters, which were one of the venues where munus used to be held can be also found later in the Eastern Roman Empire incorporated in stadiums that were further enclosed with a wall (Dodge 2009, 29-45; Spectacle Buildings in Late Antiquity). The changing tastes of the crowd is the most likely cause that led to a kind of “decline” of the gladiators. Furthermore, mass entertainment had not disappeared as a practice – concrete information can be acquired from some diptychs made of ivory reflecting various events.
[7] Вагалински 2009, 47, 69.
[8] On general trends see (Spectacle Buildings in Late Antiquity).
[9] Given the limitations in the length of the paper, as well as due to the multiple repetitions in the scholarly literature of general information, these sites will not be included here
[10] Маджаров 1993, 121-124; Vagalinski 2002, 280-281; Маджаров, М., Маджаров, К. 2002, 210; Иванов и др. 2006, 83-84; Вагалински 2009, 73-75, 203 № 116, 209-210 № 141; Dodge 2009, 29-42; Madzarov, K. 2012, 457; Madzarov, M. 2012, 101.
[11] Матеев 1971, 135-151; Вагалински 1997, 26-35; Вагалински 2000б, 135-139; Мартинова 2001, 102; Мартинова, Боспачиева 2002, 189; Мартонова 2005а, 218-219; Иванов и др. 2006, 82-83, 85-86; Мартинова 2006, 235-237; Мартинова 2007, 336-338; Вагалински 2009, 9-13, 205-206 № 124-125; Мартинова-Кютова, Райчева 2011, 342-344; Топалилов 2012а, 120-125; Topalilov 2012b, 403-408; Topalilov 2012c, 296-297.
[12] Топалилов 2012а, 125; Topalilov 2012b, 408.
[13] Мартинова 2007, 337-338.
[14]One possible interpretation, which has no claim to absolute veracity is that such walls were built in Late Antiquity and served to reduce the area of stadiums and transform them into amphitheaters. On earlier interpretations of the site as an amphitheater see (Вагалински 2009, 9-11). An example where the area was reduced, an additional wall was built and the stadium was turned into an amphitheater is the one in Gerasa (Spectacle Buildings from the territory of Bulgaria converted into churches in Late Antiquity).
[15] Топалилов 2012а, 125; Topalilov 2012b, 407-408.
[16] Величков 2005, 211-213 № 142; Величков 2006, 187-191; Иванов и др. 2006, 90-91; Величков 2007, 254-256; Вагалински 2009, 75, 210-211; Величков 2009а, 51-62; Dodge 2009, 29-42; Velichkov 2009b, 119-125, plate 38-39; Величков 2010, 353-355; Величков 2011, 310-313; Kirova 2012, 233-237; Velichkov 2014, 249-260.
[17] On the alleged theatre in Serdica, located under the former Party House (Spectacle Buildings from the territory of Bulgaria converted into churches in Late Antiquity)
[18] Петрова 2008, 382-383; Петрова 2009а, 373-375; Петрова 2009б, 375-377; Petrova, Petkov 2015, 399-410; Petrova 2016, 187-212; Minchev 2019, 218-220.
[19] Petrova, Petkov 2015, 405, 409; Petrova 2016, 198-199, 201; Minchev 2019, 220. During excavations in the town, some of the theatre seats were found (Fig. 12) (Petrova 2016, 203, 207; Minchev 2019, 219). Another recently discovered circus cover is the one in Philippopolis (Обр. 13) (Кесякова 2017, 323, Обр. 3).
[20] Топалилов 2012а, 112, бел. № 479.
[21] Дремсизова-Нелчинова 1987, 13-24; Вачева 1992, 32-38; Иванов, Т., Иванов, Р. 1994, 54-124, 142, 146-148, 154, 180 Appendix III; Слокоска и др. 2002, 90-92; Димитров 2007, № 11, 13, 48, 49, 199, 332, 394, 422; Вагалински 2009, 79-80; Динчев 2009б, 69-78; Ivanov, R. 2012c, 128-140; Ivanov, R. 2012g, 249-250; Владкова 2021, 183-196; Църов 2021, 661-664.
[22] Мартинова, Боспачиева 2002, 188; Мартинова 2005б, 219; Иванов и др. 2006, 84; Динчев 2009б, 64-69; Топалилов 2012а, 112-117; Topalilov 2012b, 384-391; Topalilov 2012c, 296; Мартинова-Кютова 2018, 266-268; Мартинова-Кютова 2019, 295-296; Динчев 2020, 212-213; Мартинова-Кютова, Грудева-Здравчева 2021, 711-713; Dintchev 2021b, 242-244.
[23] Иванов, Бобчев 1964, 9-58; Станчева 1989, 21; Бояджиев 2002, 135-140; Sear 2006, 424; Динчев 2010, 24-40; Динчев 2011, 61-75; Kirova 2012, 214-216; Динчев 2020, 209-210; Иванов, М. 2021, 185-204; Dintchev 2021b, 238-240.
[24] Recently has been discovered a measuring table depicting gladiatorial contests (Fig. 18) (in Църов 2021, 662, Fig. 2).
[25]Compare interpretations for theatre/odeon / bouleuterion: Вачева 1992, 32-37; Иванов, Т., Иванов, Р. 1994, 114; Слокоска и др. 2002, 92; Vagalinski 2002, 284; Иванов и др. 2006, 81; Вагалински 2009, 79-80; Динчев 2009б, 69-78; Ivanov, R. 2012c, 133-139; Ivanov, R. 2012g, 249-250; Владкова 2021, 183-196. Interestingly, the building interpreted as a bouleuterion on the plan (Fig. 15) is considered in some publications as a “small theatre – odeon”, while that to the north of it is interpreted here as a templum, in other publications is considered as the seat of the local government. There are also separate references to a circular building 100 m west of the town.
[26] Динчев 2009а, 28, 33; Динчев 2009б, 63.
[27] Динчев 2009а, 35; Динчев 2009б, 68-69, 78; Динчев 2010, 37; Динчев 2011, 75; Топалилов 2012а, 107, 118; Topalilov 2012b, 380, 391; Владкова 2021, 184; Динчев 2021а, 277; Иванов, М. 2021, 200-201.
[28] Иванов и др. 2006, 80; Sear 2006, 422; Вагалински 2009, 14-16, 43-44; Ivanov, M. 2012b, 266-270; Ivanova 2012, 102-103; Karayotov 2012b, 220-223; Karayotov 2012c, 21-22; Minchev 2019, 178-180.
[29] Иванов и др. 2006, 80; Вагалински 2009; Cholakov, I. D. 2015, 126-130; Nejkova 2015, 156-166; Minchev 2019, 177-221.
[30]Compare interpretations for theatre/amphitheater/hippodrome: Генчева 2001, 75; Vagalinski 2002, 284; Дичек 2004, 111; Иванов и др. 2006, 84; Dyczek 2005, 301-305; Derda et all 2008, 26; Dyczek et all 2008, 18 - footnote 19, 29; Вагалински 2009, 80; Ivanov, R. 2012f, 255-262; Сарновски 2014, 34; Харизанов 2019, 32, 166, 634.
[31] Димитров 2007, 374-375 № 54; Димитров 2010, 327-339; Ivanov, R. 2012b, 59.
[32] Vagalinski 2002, 284; Вагалински 2009, 80, 153 №15; Karayotov 2012a, 92-95.
[33] Темата за сполиите в сградите през Късната античност, остава тема на бъдещи разработки.
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